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Abstract: 

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)—also known as chronic obstructive lung disease, chronic obstructive airway disease, and chronic obstructive respiratory disease—refers to chronic bronchitis and emphysema, a pair of commonly coexisting diseases that narrow the lungs’ airways. This limits the fl ow of air to and from the lungs, causing shortness of breath. Unlike asthma, COPD usually worsens over time.

Keywords: sputum, squamous metaplasia, alveoli, bronchioles, smoking, pollutants, Bronchodilators, corticosteroids, anticholinergics

Affiliations:  1: Diamond Pharmacy Services.